Saturday, August 31, 2019

The Importance of Reading

I had an epiphany about reading and it changed my life. It was a day only several years ago when I first realized the numerous benefits I could realize from reading. Of course, I had been told all my life that reading was important. I was forced to do it in class after class beginning in elementary school and on up through high school. I had never read for enjoyment, had never gone to a book store and surveyed the stacks of tomes with pleasure, had never been to the library except when it was required for researching a particular assignment. To me reading was drudgery, a chore which interfered with more important things in life, like eating and sleeping. It wasn’t until I took an English class in my senior year, however, that the importance of reading finally penetrated my brain. I realized my teacher for that English class, Mrs. Smith, was different from others I’d had in the past from the first day I walked into her classroom. While she looked like a typical, older lady with her graying hair and pair of wire-rimmed reading glasses continually perched on the end of her nose, it was her attitude that set her apart from other instructors. From her roost atop a stool at the front of the room, Mrs. Smith ruled the classroom with short legs swinging to and fro above the rungs while her arms – complete with flabby â€Å"schoolteacher arm† – would wave about to lend emphasis to her words. Mrs. Smith could tell I was uncomfortable in her English class almost immediately. She watched me squirm in my seat during her lectures and saw the visible signs of upset when she handed out a reading assignment. I’m sure the groan I emitted was another clue to my discomfort. The next day, Mrs. Smith decided to address this issue with the entire class, without naming me specifically as the impetus for this particular lecture. I’ll never forget what she said, however. It was something along the lines of this: â€Å"If you are going to get ahead in this world, you need to continually inform yourself about many different matters. In order to keep yourself informed, you must read. I don’t mean sitting down to read â€Å"War and Peace† front to back, but more general reading. Take the opportunity to read anything you can. If you are sitting at the breakfast table eating a bowl of cereal, read the back of the cereal box. Take time to read a magazine article about something which interests you. Reading doesn’t have to take a lot of time or be boring.† For some reason, Mrs. Smith’s words made me come to the realization that reading was beneficial in a way that other teachers had failed to do. I took her advice. I began by reading the back of the cereal box while eating my breakfast later that week (and Trix, by the way, has the best reading material, although Cap’n Crunch comes in a close second). I started reading newspaper articles; smaller ones at first and then lengthier columns. While waiting for a doctor’s appointment or to get on an airplane, I read the signs posted on the wall, the advertising posters and billboards, and magazines that were left behind. Just a little bit at a time, I told myself. Remember what Mrs. Smith told you – that reading doesn’t need to take a lot of time. Mrs. Smith’s first assignment to the class included reading two short stories, William Faulkner’s â€Å"A Rose for Emily† and â€Å"Everything Rises Must Converge† by Flannery O’Connor. We were to read the assigned stories and then analyze their meanings, and structure. Mrs. Smith helped us with an initial story we read in class and showed us how to read efficiently and what things to keep in mind as we read. She taught us to look beyond the obvious and delve deeper into the author’s motivation, history, and the lesson, or lessons, they were trying to convey. To my surprise, I actually enjoyed reading the two short stories. It didn’t take much time to read through them the first time and, using Mrs. Smith’s directives, the second time of reading brought to light many aspects of the story I had previously missed. There was a depth to the words that caused me to sit back and reflect further on what I’d read. In particular, Flannery O’Connor’s â€Å"Everything Rises Must Converge† made a great impact on me with its important statement regarding racism and reverse racism. Prior to reading that story, I’d really had no idea just how prevalent such issues were in the South and how it might adversely affect people. Although O’Connor wrote the work some decades earlier, the issues raised are as important today as they were back then. I wish I could say I became an avid reader overnight, but that’s not the way it happened. I did, however, begin to take a peek at some of the books for sale in various stores. If I happened to be at the drug store, I snuck into the aisle of bestsellers and looked over the covers, reading the blurbs of praise on the front. I wasn’t sure what subjects would interest me, but after reading some excerpts online, I decided that science fiction was the best fit for me and my personality. I tried reading â€Å"The Hobbit† but its length made it a chore so I opted, instead, for some shorter books, like novels based on the â€Å"Star Wars† movies. The volumes I chose couldn’t be classified as classical literature by any means, by I enjoyed reading them and I figured that if there were books that could hold my interest, me – the self-proclaimed non-reader – then they couldn’t be all bad. Next on my list are some of the more classical works of science fiction, like those by Isaac Asimov, Jules Verne, and H. G. Wells. I’ve learned a lot along the way in my reading adventures. I’ve gotten an insider’s view to history, as well as what the future might hold. I’ve identified with characters and been surprised at endings which left me wanting to know more. An added benefit which I never would have guessed is that of greater confidence in writing. Attending college means that essays, term papers, and theses are required in order to pass most classes. When once I used to dread doing such assignments, I’ve found that, through reading, I am much more comfortable with the written word. This is what literacy means to me. It is the ability to use our skills – of reading and writing and comprehension – to further our knowledge as well as the desire to do so in order that we may better ourselves. No matter if you read a mystery novel or a history book, there is something in that volume which imparts further knowledge to the reader. In some cases, it is obvious – such as learning about the mistakes in history so future generations are not doomed to make the same mistakes. In other cases, it is not so obvious. But any book that causes the reader to think about something in a different way is doing its job by expanding our knowledge and inciting our curiosity. As Frederick Douglass once said, â€Å"Once you learn to read, you will be forever free.† And by the way, thank you Mrs. Smith, wherever you are! The Importance of Reading I had an epiphany about reading and it changed my life. It was a day only several years ago when I first realized the numerous benefits I could realize from reading. Of course, I had been told all my life that reading was important. I was forced to do it in class after class beginning in elementary school and on up through high school. I had never read for enjoyment, had never gone to a book store and surveyed the stacks of tomes with pleasure, had never been to the library except when it was required for researching a particular assignment. To me reading was drudgery, a chore which interfered with more important things in life, like eating and sleeping. It wasn’t until I took an English class in my senior year, however, that the importance of reading finally penetrated my brain. I realized my teacher for that English class, Mrs. Smith, was different from others I’d had in the past from the first day I walked into her classroom. While she looked like a typical, older lady with her graying hair and pair of wire-rimmed reading glasses continually perched on the end of her nose, it was her attitude that set her apart from other instructors. From her roost atop a stool at the front of the room, Mrs. Smith ruled the classroom with short legs swinging to and fro above the rungs while her arms – complete with flabby â€Å"schoolteacher arm† – would wave about to lend emphasis to her words. Mrs. Smith could tell I was uncomfortable in her English class almost immediately. She watched me squirm in my seat during her lectures and saw the visible signs of upset when she handed out a reading assignment. I’m sure the groan I emitted was another clue to my discomfort. The next day, Mrs. Smith decided to address this issue with the entire class, without naming me specifically as the impetus for this particular lecture. I’ll never forget what she said, however. It was something along the lines of this: â€Å"If you are going to get ahead in this world, you need to continually inform yourself about many different matters. In order to keep yourself informed, you must read. I don’t mean sitting down to read â€Å"War and Peace† front to back, but more general reading. Take the opportunity to read anything you can. If you are sitting at the breakfast table eating a bowl of cereal, read the back of the cereal box. Take time to read a magazine article about something which interests you. Reading doesn’t have to take a lot of time or be boring.† For some reason, Mrs. Smith’s words made me come to the realization that reading was beneficial in a way that other teachers had failed to do. I took her advice. I began by reading the back of the cereal box while eating my breakfast later that week (and Trix, by the way, has the best reading material, although Cap’n Crunch comes in a close second). I started reading newspaper articles; smaller ones at first and then lengthier columns. While waiting for a doctor’s appointment or to get on an airplane, I read the signs posted on the wall, the advertising posters and billboards, and magazines that were left behind. Just a little bit at a time, I told myself. Remember what Mrs. Smith told you – that reading doesn’t need to take a lot of time. Mrs. Smith’s first assignment to the class included reading two short stories, William Faulkner’s â€Å"A Rose for Emily† and â€Å"Everything Rises Must Converge† by Flannery O’Connor. We were to read the assigned stories and then analyze their meanings, and structure. Mrs. Smith helped us with an initial story we read in class and showed us how to read efficiently and what things to keep in mind as we read. She taught us to look beyond the obvious and delve deeper into the author’s motivation, history, and the lesson, or lessons, they were trying to convey. To my surprise, I actually enjoyed reading the two short stories. It didn’t take much time to read through them the first time and, using Mrs. Smith’s directives, the second time of reading brought to light many aspects of the story I had previously missed. There was a depth to the words that caused me to sit back and reflect further on what I’d read. In particular, Flannery O’Connor’s â€Å"Everything Rises Must Converge† made a great impact on me with its important statement regarding racism and reverse racism. Prior to reading that story, I’d really had no idea just how prevalent such issues were in the South and how it might adversely affect people. Although O’Connor wrote the work some decades earlier, the issues raised are as important today as they were back then. I wish I could say I became an avid reader overnight, but that’s not the way it happened. I did, however, begin to take a peek at some of the books for sale in various stores. If I happened to be at the drug store, I snuck into the aisle of bestsellers and looked over the covers, reading the blurbs of praise on the front. I wasn’t sure what subjects would interest me, but after reading some excerpts online, I decided that science fiction was the best fit for me and my personality. I tried reading â€Å"The Hobbit† but its length made it a chore so I opted, instead, for some shorter books, like novels based on the â€Å"Star Wars† movies. The volumes I chose couldn’t be classified as classical literature by any means, by I enjoyed reading them and I figured that if there were books that could hold my interest, me – the self-proclaimed non-reader – then they couldn’t be all bad. Next on my list are some of the more classical works of science fiction, like those by Isaac Asimov, Jules Verne, and H. G. Wells. I’ve learned a lot along the way in my reading adventures. I’ve gotten an insider’s view to history, as well as what the future might hold. I’ve identified with characters and been surprised at endings which left me wanting to know more. An added benefit which I never would have guessed is that of greater confidence in writing. Attending college means that essays, term papers, and theses are required in order to pass most classes. When once I used to dread doing such assignments, I’ve found that, through reading, I am much more comfortable with the written word. This is what literacy means to me. It is the ability to use our skills – of reading and writing and comprehension – to further our knowledge as well as the desire to do so in order that we may better ourselves. No matter if you read a mystery novel or a history book, there is something in that volume which imparts further knowledge to the reader. In some cases, it is obvious – such as learning about the mistakes in history so future generations are not doomed to make the same mistakes. In other cases, it is not so obvious. But any book that causes the reader to think about something in a different way is doing its job by expanding our knowledge and inciting our curiosity. As Frederick Douglass once said, â€Å"Once you learn to read, you will be forever free.† And by the way, thank you Mrs. Smith, wherever you are!

Friday, August 30, 2019

Absolutism and Democracy

What would happen if you got two different governments going head to head, fighting to see who is better? What if those two governments were Democracy and Absolutism? In the Seventeenth and Eighteenth centuries, they were both used, and one was more effective; But which one? In this time period, Absolutism was the best form of government, because it was effective and worked for the people. In an Absolutism government, or a Monarchy, it was believed the Kings worked with God, and He bestowed them with the power to be King.In Document Two, King James said, â€Å"Kings are not only God’s lieutenants upon earth†¦ But even by God himself they are called gods†¦Ã¢â‚¬  This is because the people believed Kings have powers similar to God’s. Kings can create and destroy; Can judge, but are not judged; Give life or send death. The people honestly believed because of this, they worked together with God. Their teamwork with God is why Kings were accepted by the people, a nd why Absolutism was accepted as well. Related article: Political Parties Are Pillars of DemocracyKings used fear to gain control over the people, which is why they didn’t fight against it. Machiavelli wrote in The Prince that a prince needs to be feared by the people; Not loved and well liked. He would be incapable of being able to hold power over the people. If there wasn’t a King, then there would be no control in the government. People would be deciding everything for themselves, and it would end in disaster.The King/ Prince kept them in line, and the people didn’t revolt. â€Å"The head alone has the right to deliberate and decide, and the functions of all the other members consist only in carrying out the commands given to them†¦Ã¢â‚¬  King Louis XIV said that the King is the only person able to give the right orders, and make the right decisions. Everyone else was there to follow through on what he said. The interest of the state must come before the individual.The King was the only pers on capable of making sure the right decisions were made, and that the other members carried out the commands. So as you can see, Absolutism would win against Democracy in the Seventeenth and Eighteenth centuries. It was more efficient, and worked well for them. The Kings had the power, and everyone was content with how things were set up. The people felt like this was how it ought to be, and it was. That is why Absolutism is the best form of government in this time period.

Thursday, August 29, 2019

Positive Psychology, discuss its merits and weaknesses in terms of Article

Positive Psychology, discuss its merits and weaknesses in terms of it's viability as a realistic model of intervention within psychological practice - Article Example Selingman & Peterson (2000) advise, â€Å"By embracing the disease model of psychotherapy, we have lost our birthright as psychologists-a birthright that embraces both healing what is weak and nurturing what is strong.† The realization that Psychology has had more emphasis on the negative than on more positive topics like the character-building; happiness; implications of a pleasant childhood; well-being; achievement, etc has paved the way for the emergence of Positive Psychology. Martin Selingman, its founder and advocate, and his fellow optimistic minions have devoted much research in this area of Psychology that is becoming a science of its own. â€Å"Positive psychology is the study of the conditions and processes that contribute to the flourishing or optimal functioning of people, groups, and institutions.† (Gable & Haidt, 2005) It â€Å"focuses on cultivating personality strengths and honing an optimistic approach to life rather than on cataloging human frailty and disease.† (Lawson, 2004). â€Å"Positive Psychology has three central concerns: positive emotions, positive individual traits and positive institutions† (www.positivepsychology.org website). It offers a brighter view of reality and encourages and empowers people to take more proactive steps in maximizing their strengths when life throws them problems. Pioneers and supporters of the science of Positive Psychology have been thought of as being extremely idealistic in their views. Their belief in the intrinsic goodness of people and attainment of a happy life in a world of dread and disease has resulted in accusations that they fail to recognize the very real negative sides of life. However, it is to be reiterated that the goals of Positive Psychology is not to erase or supplant work on pathology, distress, and dysfunction but to build up human resilience, strength and growth to integrate and

Wednesday, August 28, 2019

Laser tattoo removal Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

Laser tattoo removal - Essay Example Given these reasons for choosing to have tattoo, anyone can easily observe the obscurities and contradictions. That having a tattoo is a mark of stature contradicts the idea that tattoos are marks of criminals; that people have tattoos because it is a fad is opposite of anger against the society's norms. These contradictions suggest the dependence of each reason on the context one is applied to and on the prevailing societal mainstream, usually defined by the ruling class. For example, because today, tattoos have become available to people in all walks of life (criminals, included), it would be surprising to know that there was once a time when tattoos were only available to the elite and had become a fad to the royals. This started when the King of England, King Edward VII had his arm tattooed with a cross after his visit to Jerusalem in 1862 (Gilbert). In this period, tattoos are considered as status symbols. This role of tattoo does not differ greatly from its role in some primitive societies. The different ancient societies, distant from each other as they are, had similar views on tattooing. The Mayans, the Polynesians, the Samoans, Aztecs, and the Asians of the Ancient times: all considered tattoos as symbols of strength and stature in their societies. There, the leaders were the ones who usually had themselves tattooed; each design, although similar, was unique in a way that represented the story of the wearer-the wars they had participated, their losses, wins and adventures (Skin Stories: The Art and Culture of Polynesian Tattoo). Men who were to assume titles were tattooed as soon as they reach puberty, as a symbol of the start of their special roles. Those who refused were branded as cowards and would forever be outcasts in their respective societies ("Skin Stories: The Art and Culture of Polynesian Tattoo"). This was opposite to the tradition of the Japanese and Chinese. To them, a person with a tattoo was a branded criminal. A story in the Japanese history best exemplified this. It was once said that an emperor of Japan summoned a rebel and was supposed to punish him with death as he was supposed to do, given the rebel's crime. The emperor, instead, punished the rebel with a tattoo because the emperor was feeling "benevolent." It is doubtful, however that this "benevolence" was felt by the rebel, as being sentenced to a tattoo would mean being an outcast in a society and to his family as well. As it is known to all, shame and family are two concepts that were and still are very much important to the Japanese. In their culture, tattooing was a form of punishment that was only a level short of being penalized with death. This negative view of tattoos by the Japanese was influenced by the Chinese. Prior to this, the Japanese actually viewed tattoos in the same way as the Polynesians and Ma yans, being not only something that connotes one's stature but also as something that has a religious significance. This is supported by the discovery of the figures in the ancient Japanese tombs believed to be more than

Tuesday, August 27, 2019

Discussion board reply Coursework Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words - 3

Discussion board reply - Coursework Example Process control ensures maintenance of a loyal customer base through the quality of products and services that are offered by a company. Process control involves adhering strictly to rules that a company uses in production enabling the company to prevent potential costly mistakes (Shinskey, 2008). When a company fails to address a possible mistake in the production process, the burden is transferred to other processes such as marketing of the products. Process control ensures that a company does not divert from the objectives that it has in production (Albertson, 2007). The importance of the process control can also be seen in the effect that a mistake in the production process can cause to the image of a business. When there is no proper process control in the production process, poor quality goods are produced and this reduces the confidence that the consumers have in the company and the products that the company offers (Sen, 2008). All these factors as also brought out by the classmate’s post can be avoided through the application of process control. Process control mainly involves monitoring all the activities that are carried out in the company to ensure each activity is in done in accordance to set rules and regulations (Sen,

Monday, August 26, 2019

My Experience in Moving to Los Angeles from Palestine Essay

My Experience in Moving to Los Angeles from Palestine - Essay Example It was in this context of understanding that I experienced my most embarrassing moment. During the first few weeks living in Los Angeles, I explored many parts of the city. Walking through Los Feliz in Hollywood one afternoon I was approached by a man, later revealed to be a photographer, who asked for a moment of my time.â€Å"You have a very beautiful personality and image,† he said. Taken aback I have walked away, but he quickly interjected, â€Å"I would love to have you model!† I was perplexed, as I had never envisioned myself as the model type, and after-all he had just met me, how would he even have an inkling of my personality. Still, I secretly found his invitation flattering and was intrigued at where the opportunity could lead. The following weekend I arrived at his studio. Still new to the city, entering into this unfamiliar situation compounded my generalized anxiety. I knew nothing about modelling and this soon became abundantly clear. As I walked into the studio the photographer was there. â€Å"Hi† I sheepishly said. He seemed preoccupied and instructed me to go with his assistants to an adjacent room. Everyone at the studio moved confident and efficiently as if this was industry standard. As I walked into the adjacent room I was surrounded by a group of people who measured my size and then hold up a dress. I could feel the eyes of the other people in the room staring intently at me waiting. Slowly I felt a thrust of blood shoot throughout my face, as I nervously tightened my hands into fists as if it might stabilize my embarrassment. They were going to undress me.

Sunday, August 25, 2019

Role of Agricultural extension in rural development strategies of Sub Research Proposal

Role of Agricultural extension in rural development strategies of Sub Saharan Africa - Research Proposal Example Tourism has been the major industry for more than two decades but the farmers of Zanzibar are not benefitting from the estimated 1.2 million tourists that visit the island annually. Once known for its spice plantations, large percent of Zanzibar’s land remain uncultivated and they import more than 70 % of vegetables and fruits (Nyang and Webo, 2012: 154). This paper proposes the use of farmer field schools in Zanzibar to help smallholder farmers make decisions, solve problems and obtain new techniques and skills. Farmers can reap a lot of benefits if they can apply what they will be taught in these schools. The farmers will also increase their productivity and profits through sharing knowledge with neighbors. There is a great need for field schools because: smallholder farmers in Zanzibar have very little knowledge on modern farming methods, many of them didn’t attend school and they only use conventional farming practices on their farm. Arable land in Zanzibar could be increased a great deal with introduction of these schools. Improving quality and productivity through group access to production, extension and training services and reduce cost of production through purchasing of farm inputs (including fertilizers, seeds and other equipment) in large volumes. The use of farmer field schools approach as an analytical framework began in South-East Asia in the 1980s and has played a big role in the farming sector. Farmer field schools approach has changed dramatically. The impact of rapid and sustained agricultural productivity in farming practices of Zanzibar is highlighted in literature. As put by Dixon et al, (2001: 108), factors that determine the growth potential of a farming system include: favorable access to services and infrastructure and appropriate resource endowments. This research is based on the assumptions that smallholder farmers of Zanzibar have little or no knowledge

Theory and Application Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2500 words

Theory and Application - Research Paper Example Center of discussion in this paper is the theory as a systematic representation of a genuine problem, articulated as far as possible in mathematical terms in the natural sciences or logical (or strictly linguistic terms) in the life and social sciences. Theory basically refers to the research that leads to some conclusion regarding the hypotheses or that results in derivation of a hypothesis through experimentation. â€Å"Practice is viewed as action that treats real things: real acts, real teachers, real children, things richer and different from their theoretical representations†. Application or practice as the word suggests is application of the knowledge i.e. it is the practical aspect of the theoretical background. Since it the application that is usually important considering it is the application or practice that basically judges the theory hence it is important to integrate theory and practice. However, there is a significant gap between theory and practice. Especially , when it comes to the recent research being conducted, practitioners usually remain unaware of them, that has resulted in a widening gap between theory and practice. Hence it becomes necessary to understand the differences that exist between theory and it application in order to apply theories better to practice. Mullen et al. while discussing the theory-practice relationship explain that even though most consider theory and practice to be part of same world but even so they have different existence and we need to learn of ways to integrate the two. In their paper, they suggest three basic methods of integrating the two. The three methods mentioned are: metaphor, reflection and inquiry, and binocular vision. Regarding metaphor they state that â€Å"Metaphor can be used to capture a flexible, creative, and analytic form of integration†¦sees metaphor as the use of a word, phrase, or image in place of another to imply a likeness or comparison†(Mullen et al. 2005). They ref er to the system where we can analyze the situation, understand the problem, interpret it in various terms so as to be able to think of different solutions to the problem and apply the solution that best suits the problem. Reflection refers to the reflective conversation with the subjects involved. Mullen et al. (2005) refers to reflective practitioner as one who communicates with the subjects involved and thus gathers information that he utilizes in practice. However, it has a limited use since not all areas can utilize the method mentioned. Besides, communication skills are limited to individual abilities and hence do not provide a sure method for bridging the gap. Binocular vision refers to the concept where theory and practice are considered as the two lenses of the same binocular. Thus, they are considered as a part of the whole and are supposed to be naturally present in any given situation (Mullen et al. 2005). Exploring the mentioned methods Mullen et al. suggest that theory and practice are not to be viewed as part of different phenomenon instead they always exist in a situation as a whole. Further, it is difficult to state whether theory follows practice or practice follows theory instead they co-exist like the lenses of a binocular. Hammond, Rosso, Orcutt, and Martin (2011) in their attempt to develop better educational practices

Saturday, August 24, 2019

HOUSE OF THE SLEEPING BEAUTIES by Kawabata. Do you agree with Eguchi Essay

HOUSE OF THE SLEEPING BEAUTIES by Kawabata. Do you agree with Eguchi that sex and death are related - Essay Example This could be said either to be true just of this book or also of real life. It is a given that all things are related somehow. This can be looked at from an elemental standpoint. Fundamentally, humans are primally focused on the will to survive and avoid death as well as the will to attain sexual gratification from another individual. Death is something so organic in nature. It returns human bodies to a carbonic state and ends a cycle. Sex is certainly a natural and universal motivator, that it only makes sense to see a link between the two most natural and unavoidable acts a human will engage in. No one is free from impending death or an end at some point in there life whereas sex can be a beginning or a place of origin. We are born as a result of sex in most cases and then return to the earth via death. This is a basic and certain connection between sex and d death. Kawabata is known for his strange parallels between the things which we may consider to be dark such as death and sadness; and things which we may consider to be good such as beauty and sex. These parallels are acceptable because Kawabata is capable of bringing the two opposites together onto a common plane. In the case of this particular work by Kawabata, Eguchi is a character who finds himself in the house of the sleeping beauties which is essentially a bordello that offers a night‘s sleep with heavily sedated women who almost appear to be corpses. This is the direct link to the connection between sex and death which essentially meets one with the other in a halfway point of necrophilia. Eguchiis damaged due to the death of his wife and therefore seems to have a fixation on the issue of death and women as they converge. This house of â€Å"sleeping beauties† seems to give the impression that men might find this the most ideal situation regarding a relationship with a woman or a sense of companionship, since the women are essentially in a

Friday, August 23, 2019

Diagnosing Organization Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

Diagnosing Organization - Essay Example A recent study with regards to organizational performance links effectiveness with that of organizational performance. The study also states that every organization is based on a specific function which is derived from its organizational goals. The authors define effectiveness in this context as â€Å"the level to which an organization achieves its goals† (Lusthaus, Inter-American Development Bank & International Development Research Center, 2002, p.109). The degree to which an organization shows its effectiveness in meeting its goals depends on the employees of an organization to a very large extent. The employees of an organization are considered to be its greatest assets. The ability of the organization to meet its organizational goals depends on the ability of the employees to provide efficient results to the organization. The effectiveness of the employees depends on the motivation level of the organization. A motivated employee is known to act more efficiently which is essential for organizations to achieve their goals. Every organization operates in a suitable environment. The environment in which an organization operates has direct consequences on its efficiency in meeting its business goals. A few aspects of organizational environment are as follows- Competitive environment of an organization was analyzed by Michael Porter who opined that an organization is affected by five factors with regards to competitions in the business markets. These five factors are stated below- The extent of influence of these five forces defines the competitive framework of any organization. Organizations thriving for excellence must ensure that a fair balance of the above stated five forces is maintained. This helps in achieving sustainable competitive advantage for the organization (Ahlstrom, Bruton, 2009 p.132). Organizational efficiency and performance depends on the manner with which an organization takes care of the above stated factors. Effective handling

Thursday, August 22, 2019

Free

Freedom of Speech vs. Censorship Essay Adopted in 1791, the First Amendment, states â€Å"Congress shall make no law abridging the freedom of speech, or of the press or the right of the people peaceably to assemble, and to petition the Government for a redress of grievances.† (Pilon) The freedom of speech documented in the First Amendment is not only a constitutional protection but also an inevitable part of democratic government and independence, which are essential values in society. â€Å"Censorship,† according to Justice Oliver Wendell Holmes, â€Å"is an almost irresistible impulse when you know you are right† (Sunstein). That is why the American citizen’s right to free speech should be held as the highest virtue and any censorship of freedom of speech should not be allowed, however, should be respected. Freedom of speech is essential part of democratic government because the only way truth can emerge when there is an open competition of ideas. However, there is a strong support of censorship when people start mentioning extremely offensive opinions. Should the freedom of speech be limited in this case? The answer is â€Å"No†. â€Å"If liberty means anything at all,† writes George Orwell, â€Å"it means the right to tell people what they do not want to hear.† (Cox) If we want to enjoy the freedom fully, the full protection should be given to the freedom of speech; there are no compromises about it. Freedom of speech protected by the First Amendment is not just a right, which can be declared or abolished. According to the â€Å"liberty theory,† proposed by some lega l scholars, freedom of speech is an essential part of the liberty of every person who pursues an individual self-determination and self-realization (Cox). Thus, freedom of speech is also a global right one that permits freedom of personal development and self-expression. Another theoretical ground to support the freedom of speech is called â€Å"tolerance theory.† It holds that the ability to teach and promote tolerance is one of the most important assets of freedom of speech (Cox). From this perspective, freedom of speech itself excludes any type of intolerance, which sometimes appears in a threatening form (religious intolerance, racial intolerance). The â€Å"tolerance theory† implies self-restraint, which is the only appropriate response to any ideas, even those that we may personally may dislike or hate. The â€Å"tolerance theory† provides a broader context for exercising tolerance in a conflict-ridden democratic society. Furthermore, in legal practice there are certain restrictions on freedom of speech imposed by the Supreme Court. They define a few categories of speech, which are considered not to be fully protected by the First Amendment. These categories include defamation, advocacy of imminent illegal conduct, obscenity and, fraudulent misrepresentation (Farber). However, if the speech does not fall within one of these categories, there are no grounds for the government to argue that freedom of speech should be restricted because of its harmful content. One of the common bases for partial censorship is proof that the freedom of speech causes imminent illegal action. The Supreme Court has already drawn a careful line between general abstract theories and political dissent on one hand and particular illegal acts incitement on the other. This line is drawn by definition of â€Å"clear and present danger† test (Farber). The government cannot sue the speaker on the basis of its tendency or possibly illegal conduct incitement. Before any speech is punished on the grounds of incitement, there is an obligatory three-part criterion that should be met. First, the speech must directly incite lawless action. Second, the context of speech must imply imminent breaking of the law, rather than call for illegal conduct at some indefinite future time. At last, there should be a strong intention to produce such conduct (Farber). Such â€Å"clear and present danger† test determines the level of probability of threat imposed by the speech in question. However, the evil, which the government tries to prevent by outlawing the advocacy, does not outweigh the harm of outlawing the free speech. Only when the imposed danger becomes evident, the freedom of speech may be questioned. We must be aware that the price for preventing several cases of the openly declared illegal conduct may be paid by restriction of one of the most essential rights that constitute freedom for the entire nation. For the wellbeing and public safety, the Supreme Court has imposed certain regulations on the freedom of speech not because of its content, but because of the time, place and, manner the speech is being expressed (Farber). The court pointed out in Snyder v. Phelps (2011) that one way to ascertain whether a restriction is content-based versus content-neutral is to consider if the speaker had deliver a different message under exactly the same circumstances (Supreme Court of the United States). However, these rules do not limit the actual freedom of speech and are not even upheld, if there is no public need for this. However, concerning the content-neutral regulation, it raises many controversial issues. The content-neutral regulation requires a very careful distinction and therefore may sometimes be misinterpreted. There is a raising concern that such regulation may weaken people’s right to participate, especially if the government puts too many restrictions on how the ideas should be voiced. Thus, by analyzing the current issues concerning the First Amendment right to free speech in the United States, I wanted to show the perspective of outlawing this right, and the negative aspects t hat such outlawing may involve. Freedom of speech has served a crucial role for the right to dissent and for the entire principle of democracy in our society. This law was developed during the course of American history and only after numerous struggles it was achieved. The evolution of this law is still in progress however, the limitation of the basic right to free speech may as well limit our freedom and democracy, therefore should be respected and protected. Works Cited Cox, A. A Freedom of Expression. Cambridge: Harvard University, 1981. Print. The Declaration fo Independence and the Consitituion fo the United States. The Declaration fo Independence and the Consitituion fo the United States. By Roger Pilon. N.p.: Cato Institute, 2000. 1-10. Print. Farber, D. The First Amendment. New York: Foundation Press, 1998. Print. Sunstein, C. Democracy and the Prolem of Free Speech. New York: Free Press, 1993. Print. United States v. Kozminski 487 U.S. 931 (1988). U.S. Supreme Court, n.d. Web. 1 Apr. 2013. http://supreme.justia.com/cases/federal/us/487/931/. United States. Supreme Court. Supreme Court of the United States of America. Supreme Court of the United States of America, Oct. 2010. Web. 1 May 2013. http://www.supremecourt.gov/opinions/10pdf/09-751.pdf.

Wednesday, August 21, 2019

Managing Change At Sainsburys In Todays Economy Management Essay

Managing Change At Sainsburys In Todays Economy Management Essay Today world business is changing rapidly cause of changing in environment, changing in customer demand, change in political and economic front. There is tight competition also affect change. Change also changing with respect of situation and demand of change. Change gives future vision and without change we cannot getting better opportunity. Change is intact in today world. Sainsburys is longest standing major food retailing chain in the United Kingdoms. Their supermarket offers 30,000 products, 50% of which are Sainsburys own brand. Sainsburys success depends in wide range of quality food and grocery products, many stores offers meat and fish counters, pharmacies, coffee shop, restaurant and gas stations. Sainsburys need change in HR training system. I observe that employee of Sainsburys get training normally in the store. I would like to change training system by developing centralise training system. In this assignment I explain background to change in Sainsburys than I develop a system that involves stack holder introduction of change. After that I discuss merits and demerits of system which is use for change in Sainsburys. I use appropriate models for change in Sainsburys and finally, I implement change through this model. Background to change affecting Sainsburys Background to change that exist in todays economy Change management is plan, initiate, realize, control, and finally stabilize change processes on both, corporate and personal level. Change may cover such diverse problems as for example strategic direction or personal development programs for staff. (Oliver Recklies, 2003) Internal forces Human resource problems and prospects This problem is stem from employee perception of how they are treated at work and the match between individual and Sainsburys need and desires. The relationship between employees unmet need and job dissatisfaction. Dissatisfaction is a symptom of an underlying employee problem that should be addressed. Unusual or high level of absenteeism and staff turnover also represent forces for change. Sainsburys might respond to these problems by reducing employees role conflict, overload and ambiguity and also by removing the different stressors. Positive change stem from employee participation and suggestions. Managerial Behaviour and decisions Excessive interpersonal conflict between managers and their subordinates is a sign that change is needed in Sainsburys. Both the manager and employee may need interpersonal skills training and the two individuals may simply need to be separated. For example, one of the parties might be transferred to a new department. Inappropriate behaviour shown by leaders, such as inadequate direction or support may require change in the response to these human resource problems. External forces There are four key external forces change demographic characteristics, technological advancements, market changes and social and political pressures. Demographic characteristics Demographic changes are occurring in the workforce of Sainsburys. Two key trends identified in this discussion were that: workforce is more diverse and there is a business imperative to manage diversity affectivity. They are to receive maximum contribution and commitment from employee. Technological Advancements Service organisation is increasingly using technology as a means to improve productivity and market competitiveness in Sainsburys. Companies, for instance, have automated their operation with computerised numerical control, which is used for mental cutting operations and computer aided design. Companies also use computer integrated services. This high technical process attempts to integrate product design with product design with product planning control and operations in Sainsburys. Centralise training system can develop by latest technology. Market change The emergence of a global economy is forcing Sainsburys to change the way they do business. For example, many Japanese companies have to discontinue their job for life philosophy because of increased international competition. To get competitive advantage Sainsburys can use centralise training system in department of HR. Social and Political Pressures These forces are created by social and political events in Sainsburys likewise harmful product selling give a lot of pressure to company. This pressure is being exerted through legislative bodies. Political event can create substantial change. Although, it is difficult for organisation like Sainsburys to predict changes in political forces, many organisation hire lobbyists and consultants to help them detect and response to social and political change. Bureaucracy in Sainsburys Bureaucracy is concerned with efficiency, with division of labour, with rigid chain of command, with clear distinctions and rationality. Job specialization Job specialization is the process to give particular task to the employee with limitation of performing activities. Strength Every employees of Sainsburys know their duty and area of contribution so all members of Sainsburys do specific tasks to achieve goal that given by company. This way employee gain specialisation in their job. It increases efficiency in work through repetition of job. Job specialization gives more and more expertise in work. Weakness To do repetitive work through employee can reduce overall productivity and it also prevents their knowledge and skill in Sainsburys. There is limitation to do work in employee choice. Employee got one part of skill rather than complete skill in organisation. Job specialization does not give training of all area of knowledge which reduces the confidence of employee to do other activities. Employment and career Strength It is necessary to appoint appropriate person to particular position in Sainsburys. Sainsburys have a wide range of learning and development available using variety of methods like workshops, activity and coaching training, workbooks at all. Sainsburys also recruit graduates because they need quick thinking innovators leading the business. Sainsburys offers promotion to the employee in the basis of their performance. Weakness Individuals throughout the Sainsburys are promoted to their level of incompetence and it can restrict the psychological growth of the individual in their job. Global changing environment directly effect on employment and career. Current economic situation shows that generation of new employment and career growth get harder. Rules and procedures Strength All employees know that what are Sainsburys rules and procedures which improve work efficiency. Strict rules on position qualifications and code of conduct, Sainsburys get proper information which is helps to achieve company objectives. Weakness With the help of rules give minimum level of acceptable performance in Sainsburys. Employee leads to individual and sub unit goals which replace Sainsbury objectives. It gives delay in work and employee cannot produce more productivity in work Alternative forms of organisational development Total Quality Management Quality is a difficult criterion to assess because it depends on the expectation of a product on services. Sainsburys may choose radically for qualities of their output apply Total quality management. TQM exist when the needs of the customers of Sainsburys may try to meet and communicate about these needs with its customer. Furthermore, all departments in Sainsbury need to aim for high quality, the back office departments included. Finally, quality is a continuous improvement project because quality can always be improved and it also depends on customer needs, which are frequently changing. TQM may be part of Sainsburys because TQM trough we can change in centralise training system. Kaizen Kaizen is Japanese export, and have been used worldwide. Sainsburys Membership is voluntary, and member are drawn from a particular department, No financial rewards are given for team suggestions, Members receive training in problem solving, statistical quality control and team processes, Their problem solving domain is defined by management, Meeting are held weekly, usually in company time, often with trained facilitators helping members with training issue and helping them to manage the meetings. Sainsburys may include quality improvement, quality enhancement and employee involvement. Kaizen may be part of Sainsburys, with the help of kaizen we can change centralise training system. Business Process re-engineering Sainsburys may report significant improvements in performance as a result of applying re-engineering methods. The fresh start, blank sheet approach ignores past history and current practice in favour of considering how best to structure of the Sainsburys and design work to meet the needs of todays business and customers. The process orientation also represents a departure from most traditional approaches to analysis Sainsburys. A process is simply a set of activities that delivers a product or a service to a customer. The customer of Sainsburys may be eventual user of the product or service, or it could be an internal customer the person or section responsible for the next set of activities in the overall process. BPR may be part of Sainsburys, we can use BPR to change centralise training system in Sainsburys. Learning organisation It is generally recognised that Sainsburys ability to learn is a key strategic weapon. They emphasised a range of activities that are all part of knowledge management. Learning is in its simplest form a process of retention of response patterns for subsequent use but it can also be active process of experimenting and understanding the reasons behind events. Sainsburys learning requires the institutionalisation and acceptance of knowledge spread again among the member through socialisation. Organisation needs tools for this institutionalisation process, such as communication channels, storage systems, knowledge sharing processes, storytelling at all. Sainsburys may one that proactively creates, acquires and transfer knowledge and that change its behaviour on the basis of new knowledge and insights. Learning organisation may be part of Sainsburys so we may change centralise training system with help of learning organisation in Sainsburys. System for involving other in process of change in the Sainsburys 2.1 system involve appropriate stake holders in the introduction of change A core element of the functioning of system is the interdependence between the component parts of a system. (Kelly, Ryan, Altman Stelzner, 2000) In this assignment I would like to change in HR training system and I would like to develop centralise training system in Sainsburys. To develop this system, I involve stakeholders like employee, customer, manager, line manager and management of Sainsburys. Advertisement Management give advertisement to aware about the change in centralise training system which can through employee, manager, line manager get centralise training. This centralise training will help to achieve company target and their own goal. Customers get benefit about services of Sainsburys. Advertisement is effective way to promote and get aware about change in centralise training system in Sainsburys. Employee, manager and line manager to make video add which can help to implement centralise training system in Sainsburys. Advertisement through employee, manager and line manager can aware about change in advertisement system. Print media Print media is very effective way to promote change in centralise training system. Quick turnover of newspaper is good medium to reach the customer. With magazine advertise can focus in on a specific target audience. Poster is more effective way of outdoor advertising. Employee, manager and line manager make printed paper of centralise training system change in Sainsburys. Customer can get detail printed paper. Print media through employee, manager and line manger look change in centralise system in Sainsburys. Training and development There are many problem also come forward when we introduce change so to introduce change in effective way training and development is require. Sainsburys all staff like employee, supervisor, line manager, manager need to require training to introduce change in centralise training system. Training gives more reliability toward change and it direct connected success of change. Training through employee knows benefits of change and how it directly affects the Sainsburys growth. Employee, supervisor, line manager and manager make centralise programme which help to introduce change in Sainsburys. Word of mouth The word of mouth marketing is most effective way to affect services business. Centralise training system in HR, this change involves employee, customer and manager. It is positive change in training system which gives credibility of the service. It can promote by employee can discuss about the new services of Sainsburys. It is the way to give common response from the target market. This is long term marketing method. It is more successful and cost effective selling tool. Word of mouth through employee, customer and manger hear or listen about centralise training system change in Sainsburys. Online Online marketing mainly possible uses the internet and World Wide Web. To introduce change in centralise training system company involve customer and all employee of Sainsburys. Customer and all employee make online report of change centralise training system in Sainsburys. Company use Sainsburys website to promote change in centralise training system. Sainsburys employee sends e-mail by their customer to inform new change in services. To use online classified advertisement through company reach to the people. Online through customer and all employee get online information about change in centralise training system. Meeting When employee, mangers, supervisor discuss the change in centralise training system in HR and try to find out effective way of change. It is only possible by organising meeting. Meeting through they can discuss the problems that arise to introduce change and how can we solve the problem and knows the different view about development of system. Meeting through employee can aware about change in centralise training system. Analyse and evaluate the system Advertisement Merits Advertisement helps to promote centralise training system of HR department in Sainsburys. Advertisement of change in HR system gives positive image to their customer, employee and manager. Advertisement through us can directly cover mass number of customers. Demerits Advertisement is expensive things because for advertisement need so many activities, planning and time in Sainsburys. If change is not properly promote than it gives negative feedback to all the stakeholders of Sainsburys. Print media Merits It has a general and wide appeal. It can be repeated as long as advertise desire. The effectiveness of advertisement can also be estimated. The life is such longer than life of a newspaper. The get up is more attractive and use of colours is possible. Advertisement is accessible to each class of the society. Because of large circulation, low cost advertising. Demerits It has a very short span of life. The use of colours is often not possible. Illiteracy is also affects the utility of newspaper advertising. Advance planning is necessary limited circulation of magazines. Repetitive advertising is not possible. Training and development Merits It will increased productivity and reduce employee turnover. It increased efficiency resulting in financial gains and decreased need of supervision. It will build a more efficient, effective and highly motivated team which enhance the companys competitive position and improve employee morale. It will give sense of satisfaction through the achievement of personal and Sainsburys goal. Demerits Training requires new investment, time, training programme, training place as well as trainee. Particularly in Training period, employee cannot work that who already was working for Sainsburys because they spend time on acquire training. Training and development directly effect on company financial. Word of mouth Merits Word of mouth is very important and long term marketing approach. It is also cost effective and time consuming. It gives more powerful effect to the customer and employee of Sainsburys. There is no need any kind of training and knowledge. Demerits Word of mouth sometime creates conflict between customer or employee and Sainsburys change. Word of mouth increase confusion about the change which does not provide evidence of change. It may give wrong perception of change in Sainsburys. Online Merits Online marketing is give visual and written detail of change in Sainsbury. It is time consuming and less expensive. It depends on online presentation of change in Sainsburys which give positive image to their customer, employee and manager. Demerits Online promotion through us cannot correlate all customer, employee and manager about change in Sainsburys. It only targets particular target group rather than all of them. Meeting Merits Meeting require discussion of change in Sainsburys with their employee, customer and managers. It is effective way to decrease problems as much and try to solve by meeting. Demerits It only focuses particular target group so we cannot get feedback of all to introduce change in Sainsburys. It require place to organise meeting and in meeting, cannot get clear feedback of change in Sainsburys. Implement model for ensuring on going change in Sainsburys appropriate models for change There are so many models available for change but Business process re-engineering and total quality management are more appropriate implementation model for HR training change in Sainsburys. Business process re-engineering When considering change, start with black sheet of paper and redesign from scratch. Second, advocate a process orientation to the analysis and redesign of centralise training system in Sainsburys. The fresh start, blank sheet approach ignores past history of training system and current practice in favour of considering how best structure of centralise training system in Sainsburys and design work to meet the needs of todays business and customers. BPR is not a context sensitive approach. The process orientation also represents a departure from most traditional approaches to organizational analysis. A process is simply a set of activities that delivers centralise training system to employee, manager and line manager. Employee may be the eventual user of centralise training system or it could be an internal customer the person or section responsible for the next set of activities in the overall process. This is potentially radical because it requires a horizontal analysis of work along an activities chain. A typical business process re-engineering project has four main stages: (1) Process mapping: draw a flow chart of centralise training activity sequence. (2) Identify moment of truth: decide which step are critical, add value and introduce errors. (3) Generate redesign proposals: streamline the process, avoiding duplication and overlap (4) Implementation: put the redesign into effect change in Sainsburys. Total quality management Total quality management means that the organisations culture is defined by and supports the attainment of customer satisfaction through an integrated system of tools, techniques and training. This involves the continuous improvement of organisational process, resulting in high quality product and services. To do it rights the first time to eliminate costly rework and listen to learn from customer and employees. Make continuous improvement and every day matter. Build teamwork, trust and mutual respect. Quality consultant Richard J. Schonberger sum up TQM as continuous, customer centred, employee driven improvement. TQM is necessarily employee driven because service quality cannot be continually improved without the active learning and participation of every employee. Thus, in successful quality improvement programmes, TQM principles are embedded in the organisations culture. Despite variations in the language and scope of TQM programmes, it is possible to identify four common TQM principles. Quality is a difficult criterion to assess because it depends on the expectation of a product or service. Organisations who choose radically for quality of their output apply Total Quality Management. TQM exists when the needs of customers of the organisation are heard and the organisation tries to meet and communicate about these needs with its customers. Furthermore, all departments in the organisation need to aim for high quality, the back office department included. Finally, quality is a continuous improvement project because quality can always be improved and it also depends on customer needs, which are frequently changing. implementation process and outcomes Unfreezing Sainsburys run training and development of LGV1 driver, warehouse shift manger, team manager and warehouse operation individually. There is no centralise training programme for employee so Sainsburys get difference in productivity. Sainsburys identify this problem and they do planning to introduce centralise training system with help of developing perfect training programme with the help of employee, line manager, manager and management. Sainsburys can use Business Process Re-engineering model for change in training system. Sainsburys can use special trainer to give training and with the all equipment which is necessary for training. Moving Sainsburys ready to implement centralise training system for employee. This centralise training system improve productivity of employee. Sainsburys can open centralise training different store so employee cannot get problem to take centralise training in Sainsburys. Sainsburys can make live atmosphere in centralise training place so employee can enjoy training. Centralise training through company get more efficient staff. Freezing Sainsburys implemented centralise training system after that Sainsbury can get feedback from the employee, manger, line manager and supervisor. Sainsburys gather review of centralise training system. If is there any problem or treat remain, Sainsburys can implement problem by identify solution. When Centralise training system is resolving the entire problem than centralise training system runs perfectly in Sainsburys. Sainsburys try to consolidate this centralise training programme. Outcomes Centralise training system give same quality of training to every employee in Sainsburys. Centralise training system will help to increase productivity in Sainsburys. Centralise training through get motivation in work. Employees of Sainsburys get confidence in job and do their best in job. It helps to improve managerial and leadership quality in Sainsburys. It will reduce conflict and problem of employee, manager, line manager, and supervisor in working environment. Sainsburys may achieve high quality organisation in the UK by using centralise training system. Conclusion Sainsburys is the larger retailer in UK. Sainsburys need to give better customer services in UK. It can be possible by better training programme and Sainsburys can use centralise training programme through every employee can get same training in Sainsburys. It will directly affect Company performance and productivity. With the help of centralise training system employee can get motived and employee best work can come out through training. Sainsburys knows to get better satisfaction in customer service can possible with the help of centralise training system. Centralise training system boost more confidence in employee.

Tuesday, August 20, 2019

Definition And Description of Employee Innovation Behaviour

Definition And Description of Employee Innovation Behaviour CHAPTER 2 Employee innovation behaviour has been defined as the intentional behaviour of an individual to introduce and/or apply new ideas, products, processes, and procedures to his or her work role, unit, or organization (West Farr, 1989, 1990b). Examples of employee innovative behaviour in the workplace include introducing new technologies and techniques, suggesting new ways to achieve objectives, trying new ways of performing work tasks, and facilitating the implementation of new ideas. Several points in the definition on employee innovation proposed by West and Farr (1989, 1990b) are worth noting. Firstly, employee innovative behaviours include behaviours pertaining to both the introduction and the application or implementation of new ideas, products, processes and procedures by the employees. This definition thus includes a variety of behaviours pertaining to the innovation processes in an organisation. Secondly, this definition takes into account both technical innovations (the introduction or application of new technologies, products, and services) and administrative innovations (the introduction or application of new procedures and policies) (Van de Ven, 1986). Technical innovations are innovations that occur in the primary work activity of the organization; administrative innovations are innovations that occur in the social system of an organization (Daft, 1978; Damanpour Evan, 1984). Examples of technical innovation include the implementation of an idea for a new product or the introduction of new elements in an organizations production process. Examples of administrative innovation include the implementation of new policies of recruitment, allocating resources, and reward. Individual innovative behaviours could be behaviours pertaining to the introduction or implementation of both technical and administrative innovations. Thirdly, the new ideas, products, processes, and procedures being introduced or implemented do not have to be absolutely new to the field. They only need to be new relative to the unit of adoption. For example, an employee is innovating when he introduces an IT system that has not been used in his organization before. This technology doesnt have to be a new invention and could have been used in other organizations before. And finally, innovative behaviours include not only those behaviours leading to innovations within the individuals work role but also behaviours that initiate or facilitate innovations in higher level units such as the individuals work group, department, or the entire organization (West Farr 1989. 2.2 Construction of the Terminology Used in the Dissertation Several similar terminologies to employee innovation exist in the literature. A brief discussion about how those terminologies are similar to and different from the framework of employee innovative behaviour will prevent potential confusion and help our understanding of employee innovative behaviour. One similar construct is individual creative behaviour. Creativity refers to the production and introduction of novel and useful ideas, products, or processes (Amabile, 1988; Oldham Cummings, 1996; Shalley, 1995; Woodman, Sawyer, Griffin, 1993). Individual creative behaviours are behaviours pertaining to the generation of such novel and useful ideas, products, or processes. Creative behaviour is closely linked to innovative behaviour and it can be considered as one type of innovative behaviour. However, innovative behaviours include a broader range of behaviours than just creative behaviours. Innovative behaviours include both the introduction of self-generated ideas (creative behaviou r) and the introduction and implementation of new ideas generated by other people and organizations. Creativity requires absolute novelty of the idea whereas innovation only requires relative novelty of the idea to the unit of adoption (King, 1990; Woodman, Sawyer, Griffin, 1993).Therefore, adopting a new policy from another organization to the current organization would be innovative but not creative. Also, the definition of creativity includes an inherent requirement for the idea or product to be useful. The phenomenon of innovative behaviour doesnt include a usefulness judgment in itself. An innovative attempt could result in different possible consequences for the organization. Yet an ineffective innovation is still an innovation. Also, creative behaviour concerns the generation of ideas whereas innovative behaviour includes both the generation or introduction and the application or implementation of the new ideas (Amabile, 1988; Scott Bruce, 1994; Zhou, 1998, 2003). Another related concept to employee innovation is role innovation. Role innovation is the introduction of significant new behaviours into a pre-existing role (West, 1987a, 1987b). Role innovation is usually studied in the context of job change and relocation (e.g., Allen Meyer, 1990; Ashford Saks, 1996; Munton West, 1995; Nicholson, 1984; West Rushton, 1989). The reference for comparison in role innovation is the pre-existing job role. It is considered an act of role innovation, if the way the current job holder does his job is different from the way the previous job holder did it or from the way other people currently do the same job in the same organization. Role innovation is related to innovative behaviour in the sense that introducing new behaviours and procedures into an existing work role is one type of innovative behaviour. However, these two concepts are still different. Role innovation only changes processes within an individuals work role. Innovative behaviours, however, is not limited to innovations occurring in the work role alone but also in the department, unit, and the organization. In addition, all innovative behaviours cannot be considered as role innovation. For example, developing new ideas and products is part of the job profile for some organizational positions (e.g. the RD department). People in those job positions routinely introduce new products and procedures into the organization and therefore frequently engage in innovative behaviour. However, since it is part of their existing job or work role, those behaviours are not considered as role innovation. Another similar concept is personal initiative. Frese, Kring, Soose, and Zempel (1996: 38) defined personal initiative as a behavior syndrome resulting in an individuals taking an active and self-starting approach to work and going beyond what is formally required in a given job. More specifically, personal initiative is characterized by the following aspects: it (1) is consistent with the organizations mission; (2) has a long-term focus; (3) is goal-directed and action-oriented; (4) is persistent in the face of barriers and setbacks, and (5) is self-starting and proactive. Some individuals behaviour in the workplace such as voluntary suggestion of new ideas to the organization can be seen as both personal initiative and innovative behaviours. However, not all personal initiative behaviours are innovative behaviours. Personal initiative could include both quantitative and qualitative initiatives. Quantitative initiatives are those activities that only require additional energy. Those activities do result into the application of new ideas, products, and procedures into the workplace and therefore are not innovative behaviours. Moreover, personal initiative is voluntary in nature of the behaviour whereas innovative behaviours do not have to be beyond the formal job requirement. In a nutshell, creative behaviour, role innovation and personal initiative are all related to but different from the construct of individual innovative behaviour. Differentiating these constructs will further clarify the concept of employee innovative behaviour. At the same time, the existing similarities suggest the possibility that the literatures devoted to these related constructs could inform research on innovative behaviours. 2.3 Employee Innovation and Image Outcome Expectations Why do employees innovate in an organisation? A piece of wisdom reiterated by learning theories and motivation theories is the importance of outcome expectations in determining human innovative behaviour. The operant conditioning theory of learning stresses the importance of the Law of Effect, which states that behaviour which appears to lead to a positive consequence tends to be repeated, while behaviour that leads to a negative consequence tends not to be repeated (Thorndike, 1911). Banduras social learning theory (1977) proposed that people learn about the consequences expected for certain behaviours not only from their own experiences but also from observing others in the workplace. To summarize, operant conditioning theory and social learning theory advocates that people develop outcome expectations of certain behaviours either from direct experiences or from vicarious learning. The outcome expectations, in turn, guide their future behaviour in the workplace. The effects of outcome expectations on behaviour are more directly addressed in Vrooms expectancy theory of motivation (1964). The renowned expectancy theory of motivation suggests that an individuals motivational force to perform an act is determined by his expectancies that the act will be followed by the attainment of certain first-level outcomes (expectancy), that these first-level outcomes will lead to certain second-level outcomes (instrumentality), and the value of these second-level outcomes (valence). The importance of outcome expectations is depicted by the concept of expectancy, which is a subjective belief concerning the likelihood that a behaviour will lead to particular first-level outcomes (Vroom, 1964). A similar observation of the importance of outcome expectations in affecting individual behavioural intentions can also be found in Ajzen and Fishbeins theory of reasoned action (1980). Outcome expectations guide innovative behaviours in the workplace. In the case of employee innovative behaviour, what are the major outcome expectations that affect employee innovation at work? Two major types of outcome expectations will impact employees decision to engage in innovative behaviours: expected performance outcomes and expected image outcomes. Expected performance outcomes are employees expectations of how his or her innovative behaviours would affect the performance or efficiency of the employees work role or unit. Expected image outcomes are an individuals expectations about how his or her innovative behaviours would affect other organization members perceptions of him or her. Expected image outcomes are an individuals expectations about how his or her innovative behaviours would affect the perceptions of the other members of the organisation towards him or her. The linkage of performance and image outcomes at the individual level is comparable to the differentiation between organization efficiency and legitimacy as suggested by institutional theory (Meyer Rowan, 1977). The organizations compete for social as well as economic fitness in the institutional perspective (DiMaggio Powell, 1983). Whereas the economic fitness or organization efficiency frontier enhance the organizations profits and competitive advantages, social fitness brings legitimacy which helps the organization gain stability, resources and hence survival. Several studies have recently brought such an institutional perspective into the study of innovation processes by highlighting the impacts of both efficiency outcomes and potential legitimacy outcomes on innovation adoption decisions. Tolbert and Zucker (1983) found that an early adoption of civil service is related to internal organizational requirements while late adoption is related to institutional definitions of legit imate structural form Westphal, Gulati and Shortell (1997) in their research work found out that early adopters can customize Total Quality Management (TQM) practices for efficiency gains, while later adopters gain legitimacy from adopting the normative form of TQM programs. Results from both the empirical studies conclude that an organizations decision to adopt an innovation is influenced by both internal efficiency considerations (i.e., the efficiency outcome) and external legitimacy considerations (i.e., the image outcome). The results not only supports the importance of considering both outcomes in the innovation process but also suggests that their relative impact on innovation adoption will vary in different situations. Abrahamson (1991) suggested a typology that highlights the dominant efficient choice paradigm and other less dominant perspectives that can be used to guide innovation research. The dominant paradigm is the efficient choice perspective (i.e., the efficiency-oriented perspective), which conceptualises organizations as rational entities who always adopt innovations that can improve organization efficiency or performance. On the other hand, two other perspectives the fashion and fad perspectives stresses on the importance of social-political processes by suggesting that organizations sometimes adopt innovations for their symbolic meaning, signalling innovativeness, rather than to boost organizations economic performance. The impacts of expected performance outcomes and expected image outcomes on employee innovative behaviour represents the efficiency-oriented and the social-political motives for employee innovation, respectively (see Figure 1). Figure 1 Outcome Expectations and Employee Innovation Behaviour Note: Except for those marked with negative signs, all links in the model are hypothesized to be positive. Source: Diagram adapted from Innovation and creativity at work: Psychological and organizational strategies by West Farr (1990a). 2.4 The Efficiency-Oriented Perspective of Expected Performance Outcomes: The efficiency-oriented perspective in understanding employee innovation behaviour suggests that one major reason people innovate is to bring performance gains. Although assumed to be one of the major motivational reasons in this dominating paradigm, few studies have directly tested the effect of such expected performance outcomes on innovative behaviour. This dissertation provides a hypothesis for testing the outcome of the effects of such expectation and on employee innovation behaviour at work. Expected image outcomes have been considered different from the concept of subjective norm in the theory of reasoned action (Ajzen Fishbein, 1980) in this study. The subjective norm concept refers to a persons belief about whether significant others think that he or she should engage in the behaviour. Although both the concepts are related to potential social outcomes of employees behaviour, expected image outcomes refer to expected perceptions from a potential audience (i.e., other employ ees in the organization) rather than the concern for the approval or disapproval of others. Image outcome expectations can be influenced by other factors as well such as relationship quality, peer expectations, and job requirements. The Literature available on impression management provides an interesting distinction between defensive and assertive impression management (Arkin, 1981; Schlenker, 1980). Tetlock Manstead (1985:61) provides a good discussion on this distinction: Defensive impression management is to protect an employees established social image; it is triggered by negative affective states such as embarrassment and shame. Whereas assertive impression management is designed to improve an employees social image; it is triggered by perceived opportunities for creating favourable impressions on others. Therefore the difference between avoiding image risks and pursuing image enhancement represent different affective states and individual motives. Consulting the impression management literature, the dissertation hypothesizes two major types of image outcome expectations that may affect an employees decision to engage in innovative behaviour. Firstly, expected image loss risk will constrain people from demonstrating innovative behaviour. An employee may decide to play it safe and try and avoid being innovative in order to look socially appropriate and prevent potential image loss. Showing such a tendency to avoid negative evaluations represents the protective self-presentation (Arkin, 1981) or defensive impression management motive (Tetlock Manstead, 1985). The self-protective motive shows that expected image risks will restrict the tendency of an employee to engage in innovative behaviour (refer Figure 1). On the other hand, people may feel the need to innovate because they may see potential opportunity to enhance work efficiency. For example, a high-performing employee may want to introduce a new work technique because he or she perceives opportunities to further improve efficiency. Contrary to the problem-driven construct this latter construct is consistent with the more contemporary vision-guided change model (Cooperrider Srivastva, 1987; Cummings Worley, 2005; Watkins Mohr, 2001) and possibility-driven logic of change (Ford Ford, 1994). This approach suggests that changes can be initiated not only to solve existing problems but also to pursue further improvement toward an ideal vision. Efficiency and performance improvement increases the competitiveness and success of an employee. Regardless of the purpose being is to fix existing performance problems or to explore potential benefits, people will be more likely to engage in innovative behaviour if they expect that the introduction of new ideas, products, procedures, or processes would bring positive performance outcomes to his or her work or job role (refer Figure 1). Therefore expected performance outcomes represent the efficiency-oriented perspective in understanding innovation. This approach suggests that people innovate because they expect positive results in performance gains. The following hypothesis has been developed based on analysing the above literature on the efficiency-oriented perspective of expected performance outcomes: Hypothesis 1: Expected positive performance outcomes are positively related to employee innovation behaviour at the workplace. 2.5 The Social-Political Perspective of Expected Image Outcomes Expected image outcomes are an individuals expectations about how his or her innovative behaviour would impact the perceptions of the other members of the organisation about him or her. Ashford, Rothbard, Piderit, and Dutton (1998), consider expected image outcomes as Employees may engage in innovative behaviour as a conscious effort to improve image. The employees engaging in innovative behaviour to pursue image gain depict the assertive impression management motive (Rioux Penner, 2001). An apt example will be employees suggesting new ideas to managers to appear competent and conscientious. Sutton and Hargadons (1996) designed a study to analyse self-enhancing motive and engineers competitive behaviours in brainstorming sessions. The self enhancing motive suggests that expected image gains will increase employee innovative behaviour at work (refer Figure 1). In line with the social-political perspective in understanding innovation, both avoiding image risks (the self-protective imp ression management motive) and pursuing image gains (the self-enhancing impression management motive) emphasize the importance of social-political considerations in determining employee innovative behaviour in the workplace. The following hypothesis has been developed based on analysing the above literature on the social-political perspective of expected image of expected image outcomes Hypothesis 2(a): Expected image risks are negatively related to employee innovation behaviour at the workplace. Hypothesis 2(b): Expected image gains are positively related to employee innovation behaviour at the workplace. 2.6 Conceptual Model for Employee Innovation Behaviour Performance and image outcome expectations are proximal determinants which determine employee innovation in the workplace and also serve as intermediate processes by which more distal individual differences and contextual antecedents affect employee innovation capabilities (West Farr, 1989). An analysis of how distal antecedent factors influence expectations of outcomes and therefore employee innovative behaviour is important for at least two reasons. Firstly, it addresses the question of how distal individual differences of employees and contextual factors affect employee innovation behaviour by examining the intermediate psychological processes. Secondly, it explains the sources of variance in employee performance and image outcome expectations across individuals and situations. Without the intention of providing an all exclusive list, the following five distal antecedent factors were considered as especially important for employee innovation behaviour: Perceived organization support for innovation, supervisor relationship quality, innovativeness as job requirement, reputation as innovative, and dissatisfaction with the status quo. These aforementioned antecedents were chosen because they are among the most studied in the literature and they represent different angles to understand employee innovative behaviour. The five proximal antecedents were taken together to form the conceptual model for testing employee innovation behaviour in this dissertation. Figure 2 Diagram of Conceptual Model for Employee Innovation Behaviour Note: Except for all those links marked with negative signs, all other links in the model are hypothesized to be positive. Source: Diagram adapted from Innovation and creativity at work: Psychological and organizational strategies by West Farr (1990a) 2.6.1 Perceived Organization Support for Innovation Organization support for innovation in terms of pro-innovation climate, resources, and time allocation, is one of the primary environmental qualities that promote innovation and creativity (Amabile, 1988; Kanter, 1988). This dissertation explores performance and image outcome expectations as important intermediate processes and tries to explain why such organization support affects innovative behaviour. If an organizational environment favours change rather than tradition for its growth and development, its members will seek to initiate change in order to be culturally appropriate (Farr Ford, 1990: 73). Similarly, an organizational climate that promotes innovation will encourage employee to engage in innovative behaviours because such climate legitimates experimentation (West Wallace, 1991) and reduces image risk involved in such behaviours (Ashford et al., 1998). An organization climate promoting innovation delivers expectancies and instrumentalities (Scott Bruce, 1994) so that the employees in that organization understand that being innovative is a desirable image. Reduced potential image loss risks and increased potential image gain environment encourage employees to engage in more innovative behaviours when perceived organization support for innovation is high. Employees in an organization supporting innovation may want to engage in more innovative behaviours not only because of the potential image outcomes but also because they have higher expectations for positive performance outcomes resulting from such innovative behaviours. A favourable organization climate for innovation demonstrates the belief that innovation will benefit the organization in developing and achieve the pinnacle of success. Having such beliefs embedded in the culture of the organization will influence individual attitudes and beliefs through the organization and boost innovation processes. Schneiders (1987) attraction-selection-attrition (ASA) framework suggests people attracted to and remaining in the organization are likely to be those individuals who share basic beliefs with the organization. Hence, it is logical to expect that compared with organisations not promoting innovative behaviours, people in organizations with pro-innovation climates are also more likely t o have pro-innovation individual beliefs. In other words, they are more likely to be satisfied and believe that initiating innovations will benefit the efficiency and performance of their work. Such beliefs in positive performance outcomes serve as another motive for employee behaviour in the workplace. The following hypothesis has been developed based on analysing the above literature on the social-political perspective of expected image of expected image outcomes Hypothesis 3(a): Perceived organization support for innovation is positively related to expected positive performance outcomes associated with employee innovation behaviour at the workplace. Hypothesis 3(b): Perceived organization support for innovation is negatively related to expected image risks associated with employee innovation behaviour at the workplace. Hypothesis 3(c): Perceived organization support for innovation is positively related to expected image gains associated with employee innovation behaviour at the workplace. 2.6.2 Supervisor Relationship Quality A quality manager-employee relationship has been found out to be an important contextual factor on employee innovation and creativity (Scott Bruce, 1994; Tierney, Farmer, Graen, 1999). The prevalence of a quality relationship with supervisor will influence employee innovative behaviour indirectly through its influence on performance and image outcome expectations. A quality relationship between the managers and the employees will increase an employees belief that his or her innovative behaviour will result in performance and efficiency gains. The Leader-Member Exchange (LMX) theory suggests that subordinates who have high-quality relationships with their supervisors are provided greater resources in the workplace (e.g., privileged information, work support) and decision latitude in return for greater loyalty and commitment (Dansereau, Graen, Haga, 1975; Graen, 1976; Graen, Novak, Sommerkamp, 1982). Therefore, employees with high-quality supervisor relationships are more likely to engage in innovative behaviour and be confident that their actions will result in performance and efficiency gains. Desire and motivation of the employees influence what he or she perceives (Gilbert, 1998; Markus Zajonc, 1985; Postman, Bruner, McGinnies, 1948). Research studies undertaken previously shows that supervisors tend to evaluate the employees they like and trust in a more positive way (Cardy Dobbins, 1986; Judge Ferris, 1993; Wayne Liden, 1995). When a supervisor likes and believes in the employee, he or she is more likely to think positively about the employees ideas and believe such ideas are meaningful and significant (Zhou Woodman, 2003). Previous research on attributions concept indicates that when the supervisor likes or empathizes with his sub-ordinates, he or she is more likely to attribute positive outcomes to the sub-ordinatess dispositional causes and negative outcomes to situational causes (Green Mitchell, 1979; Regan, Straus, Fazio, 1974; Regan Totten, 1975). It is expected that good people will perform good actions, and bad people will perform bad actions. Thus whe n liked characters do good things or disliked actors do bad things, we attribute the action to characteristics of the character (Heider, 1958). Therefore, when perceiving a good relationship with the supervisor, an employee will feel more confident that his new ideas will receive acceptance and favourable evaluations from his supervisor, resulting in higher possibilities for image gains. The following hypothesis has been developed based on analysing the above literature on the supervisor relationship quality Hypothesis 4(a): Supervisor relationship quality is positively related to expected positive performance outcomes associated with employee innovation behaviour at the workplace. Hypothesis 4(b): Supervisor relationship quality is negatively related to expected image risks associated with employee innovation behaviour at the workplace. Hypothesis 4(c): Supervisor relationship quality is positively related to expected image gains associated with innovative behaviour at the workplace. 2.6.3 Innovativeness as a Job Requirement The requirements of a job have been identified by researchers as an activating force for innovation (Kanter, 1988) and a primary factor in inducing employee creativity (Shalley, Gilson, Blum, 2000; Tierney Farmer, 2002). This dissertation explores the mechanisms through which perceived job requirement for innovativeness encourages individual innovation by its influences on both expected performance and image outcomes. The innovative requirement of a job is determined not only by the objective nature of the job position (e.g., RD scientists versus technicians) but also by the subjective attitude of the job holder, which can be influenced by factors including the job holders social environment as suggested by the social information processing theory (Salancik Pfeffer, 1978). Perceived innovativeness as a part of job requirement will also encourage innovative behaviour by minimising the concerns for image risks and increasing image gain expectations. Firstly, it validates innovative behaviours as officially acceptable and socially appropriate. The job requirement serves as a contextual influence that justifies the employees innovative behaviour. Thus, the employees do not need to provide reasons to explain their innovative behaviours and do not need to be concerned about being seen as behaving inappropriately. Secondly, previous research evidence shows that an audience is less critical and more receptive to change-initiated or innovative behaviours from people whose functional background or job position supports such innovative behaviours. Ashford and colleagues (1998) found out in their research that functional background-issue fit negatively related to image risk from selling issues. In the same way, Daft (1978) found out that organizations appeared to adopt technical ideas from professionals (in that case, teachers) and administrative ideas from administrators. Applying the same logic here, managers and fellow co-workers will be more receptive to the innovat ive behaviours of employees in positions requiring innovativeness and will consider their new ideas as more valid and well-grounded, resulting in lower image risk and higher potential of image gain for the innovative employees. The following hypothesis has been developed based on analysing the above literature on reputation of an employee as innovative Hypothesis 5(a): Innovativeness as job requirement is positively related to expected positive performance outcomes associated with employee innovation behaviour at the workplace. Hypothesis 5(b): Innovativeness as job requirement is negatively related to expected image risks associated with employee innovation behaviour at the workplace. Hypothesis 5(c): Innovativeness as job requirement is positively related to expected image gains associated with employee innovation behaviour at the workplace. 2.6.4 Reputation of an Employee as Innovative The employees are considered as more socially appropriate and legitimate when their behaviours match categorizations and expectations of the organisation where they work in (Zelditch, 2001). The existing literature on impression management suggests that the impressions people try to create are affected by their current image in the society (Leary Kowalski, 1990; Schlenker, 1980). Behaviours which are consistent with the expectations and reputations (especially desirable ones) are socially legitimized, and behaviours against those expectations run the risk of being looked down upon by the people in the society. The employees who are not expected to be Definition And Description of Employee Innovation Behaviour Definition And Description of Employee Innovation Behaviour CHAPTER 2 Employee innovation behaviour has been defined as the intentional behaviour of an individual to introduce and/or apply new ideas, products, processes, and procedures to his or her work role, unit, or organization (West Farr, 1989, 1990b). Examples of employee innovative behaviour in the workplace include introducing new technologies and techniques, suggesting new ways to achieve objectives, trying new ways of performing work tasks, and facilitating the implementation of new ideas. Several points in the definition on employee innovation proposed by West and Farr (1989, 1990b) are worth noting. Firstly, employee innovative behaviours include behaviours pertaining to both the introduction and the application or implementation of new ideas, products, processes and procedures by the employees. This definition thus includes a variety of behaviours pertaining to the innovation processes in an organisation. Secondly, this definition takes into account both technical innovations (the introduction or application of new technologies, products, and services) and administrative innovations (the introduction or application of new procedures and policies) (Van de Ven, 1986). Technical innovations are innovations that occur in the primary work activity of the organization; administrative innovations are innovations that occur in the social system of an organization (Daft, 1978; Damanpour Evan, 1984). Examples of technical innovation include the implementation of an idea for a new product or the introduction of new elements in an organizations production process. Examples of administrative innovation include the implementation of new policies of recruitment, allocating resources, and reward. Individual innovative behaviours could be behaviours pertaining to the introduction or implementation of both technical and administrative innovations. Thirdly, the new ideas, products, processes, and procedures being introduced or implemented do not have to be absolutely new to the field. They only need to be new relative to the unit of adoption. For example, an employee is innovating when he introduces an IT system that has not been used in his organization before. This technology doesnt have to be a new invention and could have been used in other organizations before. And finally, innovative behaviours include not only those behaviours leading to innovations within the individuals work role but also behaviours that initiate or facilitate innovations in higher level units such as the individuals work group, department, or the entire organization (West Farr 1989. 2.2 Construction of the Terminology Used in the Dissertation Several similar terminologies to employee innovation exist in the literature. A brief discussion about how those terminologies are similar to and different from the framework of employee innovative behaviour will prevent potential confusion and help our understanding of employee innovative behaviour. One similar construct is individual creative behaviour. Creativity refers to the production and introduction of novel and useful ideas, products, or processes (Amabile, 1988; Oldham Cummings, 1996; Shalley, 1995; Woodman, Sawyer, Griffin, 1993). Individual creative behaviours are behaviours pertaining to the generation of such novel and useful ideas, products, or processes. Creative behaviour is closely linked to innovative behaviour and it can be considered as one type of innovative behaviour. However, innovative behaviours include a broader range of behaviours than just creative behaviours. Innovative behaviours include both the introduction of self-generated ideas (creative behaviou r) and the introduction and implementation of new ideas generated by other people and organizations. Creativity requires absolute novelty of the idea whereas innovation only requires relative novelty of the idea to the unit of adoption (King, 1990; Woodman, Sawyer, Griffin, 1993).Therefore, adopting a new policy from another organization to the current organization would be innovative but not creative. Also, the definition of creativity includes an inherent requirement for the idea or product to be useful. The phenomenon of innovative behaviour doesnt include a usefulness judgment in itself. An innovative attempt could result in different possible consequences for the organization. Yet an ineffective innovation is still an innovation. Also, creative behaviour concerns the generation of ideas whereas innovative behaviour includes both the generation or introduction and the application or implementation of the new ideas (Amabile, 1988; Scott Bruce, 1994; Zhou, 1998, 2003). Another related concept to employee innovation is role innovation. Role innovation is the introduction of significant new behaviours into a pre-existing role (West, 1987a, 1987b). Role innovation is usually studied in the context of job change and relocation (e.g., Allen Meyer, 1990; Ashford Saks, 1996; Munton West, 1995; Nicholson, 1984; West Rushton, 1989). The reference for comparison in role innovation is the pre-existing job role. It is considered an act of role innovation, if the way the current job holder does his job is different from the way the previous job holder did it or from the way other people currently do the same job in the same organization. Role innovation is related to innovative behaviour in the sense that introducing new behaviours and procedures into an existing work role is one type of innovative behaviour. However, these two concepts are still different. Role innovation only changes processes within an individuals work role. Innovative behaviours, however, is not limited to innovations occurring in the work role alone but also in the department, unit, and the organization. In addition, all innovative behaviours cannot be considered as role innovation. For example, developing new ideas and products is part of the job profile for some organizational positions (e.g. the RD department). People in those job positions routinely introduce new products and procedures into the organization and therefore frequently engage in innovative behaviour. However, since it is part of their existing job or work role, those behaviours are not considered as role innovation. Another similar concept is personal initiative. Frese, Kring, Soose, and Zempel (1996: 38) defined personal initiative as a behavior syndrome resulting in an individuals taking an active and self-starting approach to work and going beyond what is formally required in a given job. More specifically, personal initiative is characterized by the following aspects: it (1) is consistent with the organizations mission; (2) has a long-term focus; (3) is goal-directed and action-oriented; (4) is persistent in the face of barriers and setbacks, and (5) is self-starting and proactive. Some individuals behaviour in the workplace such as voluntary suggestion of new ideas to the organization can be seen as both personal initiative and innovative behaviours. However, not all personal initiative behaviours are innovative behaviours. Personal initiative could include both quantitative and qualitative initiatives. Quantitative initiatives are those activities that only require additional energy. Those activities do result into the application of new ideas, products, and procedures into the workplace and therefore are not innovative behaviours. Moreover, personal initiative is voluntary in nature of the behaviour whereas innovative behaviours do not have to be beyond the formal job requirement. In a nutshell, creative behaviour, role innovation and personal initiative are all related to but different from the construct of individual innovative behaviour. Differentiating these constructs will further clarify the concept of employee innovative behaviour. At the same time, the existing similarities suggest the possibility that the literatures devoted to these related constructs could inform research on innovative behaviours. 2.3 Employee Innovation and Image Outcome Expectations Why do employees innovate in an organisation? A piece of wisdom reiterated by learning theories and motivation theories is the importance of outcome expectations in determining human innovative behaviour. The operant conditioning theory of learning stresses the importance of the Law of Effect, which states that behaviour which appears to lead to a positive consequence tends to be repeated, while behaviour that leads to a negative consequence tends not to be repeated (Thorndike, 1911). Banduras social learning theory (1977) proposed that people learn about the consequences expected for certain behaviours not only from their own experiences but also from observing others in the workplace. To summarize, operant conditioning theory and social learning theory advocates that people develop outcome expectations of certain behaviours either from direct experiences or from vicarious learning. The outcome expectations, in turn, guide their future behaviour in the workplace. The effects of outcome expectations on behaviour are more directly addressed in Vrooms expectancy theory of motivation (1964). The renowned expectancy theory of motivation suggests that an individuals motivational force to perform an act is determined by his expectancies that the act will be followed by the attainment of certain first-level outcomes (expectancy), that these first-level outcomes will lead to certain second-level outcomes (instrumentality), and the value of these second-level outcomes (valence). The importance of outcome expectations is depicted by the concept of expectancy, which is a subjective belief concerning the likelihood that a behaviour will lead to particular first-level outcomes (Vroom, 1964). A similar observation of the importance of outcome expectations in affecting individual behavioural intentions can also be found in Ajzen and Fishbeins theory of reasoned action (1980). Outcome expectations guide innovative behaviours in the workplace. In the case of employee innovative behaviour, what are the major outcome expectations that affect employee innovation at work? Two major types of outcome expectations will impact employees decision to engage in innovative behaviours: expected performance outcomes and expected image outcomes. Expected performance outcomes are employees expectations of how his or her innovative behaviours would affect the performance or efficiency of the employees work role or unit. Expected image outcomes are an individuals expectations about how his or her innovative behaviours would affect other organization members perceptions of him or her. Expected image outcomes are an individuals expectations about how his or her innovative behaviours would affect the perceptions of the other members of the organisation towards him or her. The linkage of performance and image outcomes at the individual level is comparable to the differentiation between organization efficiency and legitimacy as suggested by institutional theory (Meyer Rowan, 1977). The organizations compete for social as well as economic fitness in the institutional perspective (DiMaggio Powell, 1983). Whereas the economic fitness or organization efficiency frontier enhance the organizations profits and competitive advantages, social fitness brings legitimacy which helps the organization gain stability, resources and hence survival. Several studies have recently brought such an institutional perspective into the study of innovation processes by highlighting the impacts of both efficiency outcomes and potential legitimacy outcomes on innovation adoption decisions. Tolbert and Zucker (1983) found that an early adoption of civil service is related to internal organizational requirements while late adoption is related to institutional definitions of legit imate structural form Westphal, Gulati and Shortell (1997) in their research work found out that early adopters can customize Total Quality Management (TQM) practices for efficiency gains, while later adopters gain legitimacy from adopting the normative form of TQM programs. Results from both the empirical studies conclude that an organizations decision to adopt an innovation is influenced by both internal efficiency considerations (i.e., the efficiency outcome) and external legitimacy considerations (i.e., the image outcome). The results not only supports the importance of considering both outcomes in the innovation process but also suggests that their relative impact on innovation adoption will vary in different situations. Abrahamson (1991) suggested a typology that highlights the dominant efficient choice paradigm and other less dominant perspectives that can be used to guide innovation research. The dominant paradigm is the efficient choice perspective (i.e., the efficiency-oriented perspective), which conceptualises organizations as rational entities who always adopt innovations that can improve organization efficiency or performance. On the other hand, two other perspectives the fashion and fad perspectives stresses on the importance of social-political processes by suggesting that organizations sometimes adopt innovations for their symbolic meaning, signalling innovativeness, rather than to boost organizations economic performance. The impacts of expected performance outcomes and expected image outcomes on employee innovative behaviour represents the efficiency-oriented and the social-political motives for employee innovation, respectively (see Figure 1). Figure 1 Outcome Expectations and Employee Innovation Behaviour Note: Except for those marked with negative signs, all links in the model are hypothesized to be positive. Source: Diagram adapted from Innovation and creativity at work: Psychological and organizational strategies by West Farr (1990a). 2.4 The Efficiency-Oriented Perspective of Expected Performance Outcomes: The efficiency-oriented perspective in understanding employee innovation behaviour suggests that one major reason people innovate is to bring performance gains. Although assumed to be one of the major motivational reasons in this dominating paradigm, few studies have directly tested the effect of such expected performance outcomes on innovative behaviour. This dissertation provides a hypothesis for testing the outcome of the effects of such expectation and on employee innovation behaviour at work. Expected image outcomes have been considered different from the concept of subjective norm in the theory of reasoned action (Ajzen Fishbein, 1980) in this study. The subjective norm concept refers to a persons belief about whether significant others think that he or she should engage in the behaviour. Although both the concepts are related to potential social outcomes of employees behaviour, expected image outcomes refer to expected perceptions from a potential audience (i.e., other employ ees in the organization) rather than the concern for the approval or disapproval of others. Image outcome expectations can be influenced by other factors as well such as relationship quality, peer expectations, and job requirements. The Literature available on impression management provides an interesting distinction between defensive and assertive impression management (Arkin, 1981; Schlenker, 1980). Tetlock Manstead (1985:61) provides a good discussion on this distinction: Defensive impression management is to protect an employees established social image; it is triggered by negative affective states such as embarrassment and shame. Whereas assertive impression management is designed to improve an employees social image; it is triggered by perceived opportunities for creating favourable impressions on others. Therefore the difference between avoiding image risks and pursuing image enhancement represent different affective states and individual motives. Consulting the impression management literature, the dissertation hypothesizes two major types of image outcome expectations that may affect an employees decision to engage in innovative behaviour. Firstly, expected image loss risk will constrain people from demonstrating innovative behaviour. An employee may decide to play it safe and try and avoid being innovative in order to look socially appropriate and prevent potential image loss. Showing such a tendency to avoid negative evaluations represents the protective self-presentation (Arkin, 1981) or defensive impression management motive (Tetlock Manstead, 1985). The self-protective motive shows that expected image risks will restrict the tendency of an employee to engage in innovative behaviour (refer Figure 1). On the other hand, people may feel the need to innovate because they may see potential opportunity to enhance work efficiency. For example, a high-performing employee may want to introduce a new work technique because he or she perceives opportunities to further improve efficiency. Contrary to the problem-driven construct this latter construct is consistent with the more contemporary vision-guided change model (Cooperrider Srivastva, 1987; Cummings Worley, 2005; Watkins Mohr, 2001) and possibility-driven logic of change (Ford Ford, 1994). This approach suggests that changes can be initiated not only to solve existing problems but also to pursue further improvement toward an ideal vision. Efficiency and performance improvement increases the competitiveness and success of an employee. Regardless of the purpose being is to fix existing performance problems or to explore potential benefits, people will be more likely to engage in innovative behaviour if they expect that the introduction of new ideas, products, procedures, or processes would bring positive performance outcomes to his or her work or job role (refer Figure 1). Therefore expected performance outcomes represent the efficiency-oriented perspective in understanding innovation. This approach suggests that people innovate because they expect positive results in performance gains. The following hypothesis has been developed based on analysing the above literature on the efficiency-oriented perspective of expected performance outcomes: Hypothesis 1: Expected positive performance outcomes are positively related to employee innovation behaviour at the workplace. 2.5 The Social-Political Perspective of Expected Image Outcomes Expected image outcomes are an individuals expectations about how his or her innovative behaviour would impact the perceptions of the other members of the organisation about him or her. Ashford, Rothbard, Piderit, and Dutton (1998), consider expected image outcomes as Employees may engage in innovative behaviour as a conscious effort to improve image. The employees engaging in innovative behaviour to pursue image gain depict the assertive impression management motive (Rioux Penner, 2001). An apt example will be employees suggesting new ideas to managers to appear competent and conscientious. Sutton and Hargadons (1996) designed a study to analyse self-enhancing motive and engineers competitive behaviours in brainstorming sessions. The self enhancing motive suggests that expected image gains will increase employee innovative behaviour at work (refer Figure 1). In line with the social-political perspective in understanding innovation, both avoiding image risks (the self-protective imp ression management motive) and pursuing image gains (the self-enhancing impression management motive) emphasize the importance of social-political considerations in determining employee innovative behaviour in the workplace. The following hypothesis has been developed based on analysing the above literature on the social-political perspective of expected image of expected image outcomes Hypothesis 2(a): Expected image risks are negatively related to employee innovation behaviour at the workplace. Hypothesis 2(b): Expected image gains are positively related to employee innovation behaviour at the workplace. 2.6 Conceptual Model for Employee Innovation Behaviour Performance and image outcome expectations are proximal determinants which determine employee innovation in the workplace and also serve as intermediate processes by which more distal individual differences and contextual antecedents affect employee innovation capabilities (West Farr, 1989). An analysis of how distal antecedent factors influence expectations of outcomes and therefore employee innovative behaviour is important for at least two reasons. Firstly, it addresses the question of how distal individual differences of employees and contextual factors affect employee innovation behaviour by examining the intermediate psychological processes. Secondly, it explains the sources of variance in employee performance and image outcome expectations across individuals and situations. Without the intention of providing an all exclusive list, the following five distal antecedent factors were considered as especially important for employee innovation behaviour: Perceived organization support for innovation, supervisor relationship quality, innovativeness as job requirement, reputation as innovative, and dissatisfaction with the status quo. These aforementioned antecedents were chosen because they are among the most studied in the literature and they represent different angles to understand employee innovative behaviour. The five proximal antecedents were taken together to form the conceptual model for testing employee innovation behaviour in this dissertation. Figure 2 Diagram of Conceptual Model for Employee Innovation Behaviour Note: Except for all those links marked with negative signs, all other links in the model are hypothesized to be positive. Source: Diagram adapted from Innovation and creativity at work: Psychological and organizational strategies by West Farr (1990a) 2.6.1 Perceived Organization Support for Innovation Organization support for innovation in terms of pro-innovation climate, resources, and time allocation, is one of the primary environmental qualities that promote innovation and creativity (Amabile, 1988; Kanter, 1988). This dissertation explores performance and image outcome expectations as important intermediate processes and tries to explain why such organization support affects innovative behaviour. If an organizational environment favours change rather than tradition for its growth and development, its members will seek to initiate change in order to be culturally appropriate (Farr Ford, 1990: 73). Similarly, an organizational climate that promotes innovation will encourage employee to engage in innovative behaviours because such climate legitimates experimentation (West Wallace, 1991) and reduces image risk involved in such behaviours (Ashford et al., 1998). An organization climate promoting innovation delivers expectancies and instrumentalities (Scott Bruce, 1994) so that the employees in that organization understand that being innovative is a desirable image. Reduced potential image loss risks and increased potential image gain environment encourage employees to engage in more innovative behaviours when perceived organization support for innovation is high. Employees in an organization supporting innovation may want to engage in more innovative behaviours not only because of the potential image outcomes but also because they have higher expectations for positive performance outcomes resulting from such innovative behaviours. A favourable organization climate for innovation demonstrates the belief that innovation will benefit the organization in developing and achieve the pinnacle of success. Having such beliefs embedded in the culture of the organization will influence individual attitudes and beliefs through the organization and boost innovation processes. Schneiders (1987) attraction-selection-attrition (ASA) framework suggests people attracted to and remaining in the organization are likely to be those individuals who share basic beliefs with the organization. Hence, it is logical to expect that compared with organisations not promoting innovative behaviours, people in organizations with pro-innovation climates are also more likely t o have pro-innovation individual beliefs. In other words, they are more likely to be satisfied and believe that initiating innovations will benefit the efficiency and performance of their work. Such beliefs in positive performance outcomes serve as another motive for employee behaviour in the workplace. The following hypothesis has been developed based on analysing the above literature on the social-political perspective of expected image of expected image outcomes Hypothesis 3(a): Perceived organization support for innovation is positively related to expected positive performance outcomes associated with employee innovation behaviour at the workplace. Hypothesis 3(b): Perceived organization support for innovation is negatively related to expected image risks associated with employee innovation behaviour at the workplace. Hypothesis 3(c): Perceived organization support for innovation is positively related to expected image gains associated with employee innovation behaviour at the workplace. 2.6.2 Supervisor Relationship Quality A quality manager-employee relationship has been found out to be an important contextual factor on employee innovation and creativity (Scott Bruce, 1994; Tierney, Farmer, Graen, 1999). The prevalence of a quality relationship with supervisor will influence employee innovative behaviour indirectly through its influence on performance and image outcome expectations. A quality relationship between the managers and the employees will increase an employees belief that his or her innovative behaviour will result in performance and efficiency gains. The Leader-Member Exchange (LMX) theory suggests that subordinates who have high-quality relationships with their supervisors are provided greater resources in the workplace (e.g., privileged information, work support) and decision latitude in return for greater loyalty and commitment (Dansereau, Graen, Haga, 1975; Graen, 1976; Graen, Novak, Sommerkamp, 1982). Therefore, employees with high-quality supervisor relationships are more likely to engage in innovative behaviour and be confident that their actions will result in performance and efficiency gains. Desire and motivation of the employees influence what he or she perceives (Gilbert, 1998; Markus Zajonc, 1985; Postman, Bruner, McGinnies, 1948). Research studies undertaken previously shows that supervisors tend to evaluate the employees they like and trust in a more positive way (Cardy Dobbins, 1986; Judge Ferris, 1993; Wayne Liden, 1995). When a supervisor likes and believes in the employee, he or she is more likely to think positively about the employees ideas and believe such ideas are meaningful and significant (Zhou Woodman, 2003). Previous research on attributions concept indicates that when the supervisor likes or empathizes with his sub-ordinates, he or she is more likely to attribute positive outcomes to the sub-ordinatess dispositional causes and negative outcomes to situational causes (Green Mitchell, 1979; Regan, Straus, Fazio, 1974; Regan Totten, 1975). It is expected that good people will perform good actions, and bad people will perform bad actions. Thus whe n liked characters do good things or disliked actors do bad things, we attribute the action to characteristics of the character (Heider, 1958). Therefore, when perceiving a good relationship with the supervisor, an employee will feel more confident that his new ideas will receive acceptance and favourable evaluations from his supervisor, resulting in higher possibilities for image gains. The following hypothesis has been developed based on analysing the above literature on the supervisor relationship quality Hypothesis 4(a): Supervisor relationship quality is positively related to expected positive performance outcomes associated with employee innovation behaviour at the workplace. Hypothesis 4(b): Supervisor relationship quality is negatively related to expected image risks associated with employee innovation behaviour at the workplace. Hypothesis 4(c): Supervisor relationship quality is positively related to expected image gains associated with innovative behaviour at the workplace. 2.6.3 Innovativeness as a Job Requirement The requirements of a job have been identified by researchers as an activating force for innovation (Kanter, 1988) and a primary factor in inducing employee creativity (Shalley, Gilson, Blum, 2000; Tierney Farmer, 2002). This dissertation explores the mechanisms through which perceived job requirement for innovativeness encourages individual innovation by its influences on both expected performance and image outcomes. The innovative requirement of a job is determined not only by the objective nature of the job position (e.g., RD scientists versus technicians) but also by the subjective attitude of the job holder, which can be influenced by factors including the job holders social environment as suggested by the social information processing theory (Salancik Pfeffer, 1978). Perceived innovativeness as a part of job requirement will also encourage innovative behaviour by minimising the concerns for image risks and increasing image gain expectations. Firstly, it validates innovative behaviours as officially acceptable and socially appropriate. The job requirement serves as a contextual influence that justifies the employees innovative behaviour. Thus, the employees do not need to provide reasons to explain their innovative behaviours and do not need to be concerned about being seen as behaving inappropriately. Secondly, previous research evidence shows that an audience is less critical and more receptive to change-initiated or innovative behaviours from people whose functional background or job position supports such innovative behaviours. Ashford and colleagues (1998) found out in their research that functional background-issue fit negatively related to image risk from selling issues. In the same way, Daft (1978) found out that organizations appeared to adopt technical ideas from professionals (in that case, teachers) and administrative ideas from administrators. Applying the same logic here, managers and fellow co-workers will be more receptive to the innovat ive behaviours of employees in positions requiring innovativeness and will consider their new ideas as more valid and well-grounded, resulting in lower image risk and higher potential of image gain for the innovative employees. The following hypothesis has been developed based on analysing the above literature on reputation of an employee as innovative Hypothesis 5(a): Innovativeness as job requirement is positively related to expected positive performance outcomes associated with employee innovation behaviour at the workplace. Hypothesis 5(b): Innovativeness as job requirement is negatively related to expected image risks associated with employee innovation behaviour at the workplace. Hypothesis 5(c): Innovativeness as job requirement is positively related to expected image gains associated with employee innovation behaviour at the workplace. 2.6.4 Reputation of an Employee as Innovative The employees are considered as more socially appropriate and legitimate when their behaviours match categorizations and expectations of the organisation where they work in (Zelditch, 2001). The existing literature on impression management suggests that the impressions people try to create are affected by their current image in the society (Leary Kowalski, 1990; Schlenker, 1980). Behaviours which are consistent with the expectations and reputations (especially desirable ones) are socially legitimized, and behaviours against those expectations run the risk of being looked down upon by the people in the society. The employees who are not expected to be